Training Fund 

The government of Cambodia offers two type of training funds to foster the technical education engagement for the private sector: 

1. Skill Development Fund (SDF): 
   To promote corporate learning and development, the government, through the Ministry of Economy and Finance (MEF), has implemented a pilot programme called the Skills Development Fund. With an initial budget of USD 5 million (potentially increasing in subsequent years), the SDF aims at upgrading skills for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and building a skilled workforce in response to labour market demand. Under this scheme, the government provides co-financing to selected companies which cooperate with technical education or other training institutions in providing skills training to current and potential employees. In return, the selected companies are obliged to increase salaries for trained employees. Priority sectors for the SDF include manufacturing, construction, ICT, electronics, and tourism. 
   More information can be found here.
   
   
2. Entrepreneurship Development Fund (EDF):
   The MEF channels funds to the private sector, mainly SMEs, through the Entrepreneurship Development Fund with a budget of USD 5 million. The EDF (currently implemented by Khmer Enterprise) is committed to scaling up SMEs and startups through the provision of capacity building, enterprise support partnerships, social digital marketing, networking, and funding (grant and co-investment).
   More information can be found here. 

Tax Depreciation 

In October 2018, the government issued a Prakas (regulation) on tax incentives for companies which support staff training, use IT-based accounting software, purchase technology to increase productivity, use at least 60% of local materials, and are located in special economic zones  
More information can be found here. 

To ensure the quality of TVET provision,

1. A Quality Assurance mechanism was established,
2. The TVET teacher training curriculum was updated, which includes a Return-to-Industry concept, and
3. The Cambodian Qualification Framework for TVET is being designed in a way to align with the Regional Qualification Framework.

To ensure equitable access to TVET, education and training provision is open for private sector providers as well. Besides that, the private sector plays an important role in the development of TVET in Cambodia and they are cooperating with the MLVT by:

1. Providing internship and job opportunities to students who have graduated
2. Collaborate in developing standard training packages (competency standards, competency based curriculum and competency assessment packages)
3. Providing tools and equipment to TVET schools
4. Providing information regarding skills need

Furthermore, under the TVET national policy 2017-2025, MLVT has committed to transform low-skill workers to medium- and high-skilled workers to reach the RGC goal, i.e. Cambodia becoming upper-middle income country by 2030 and a developed country by 2050.

For the development of TVET in Cambodia, the Government of Cambodia established the MLVT Strategic Development Plan 2014-2018, the TVET Strategic Development Plan 2014-2018, the Industrial Development Policy 2015-2025, the National Employment Policy 2015-2025 and the National TVET Policy 2017-2025, which contains all the latest goals and strategies that are to be achieved.

Moreover, as the government has recognized the challenges of skills shortage and skills mismatches, ensuring education and TVET are responding to the needs of the labour market is pivotal. The National Employment Policy 2015-2025 addresses this issue in the following:

• Developing sector-based approaches in education and TVET for higher-level skills in priority sectors;
• Strengthening and promoting collaboration between education and TVET providers and the private sector to reduce the skills gap;
• Encouraging work-based learning, promoting internships and apprenticeships;
• Strengthening and further developing existing institutional mechanisms and creating new mechanisms to allow for better and regular dialogues among stakeholders of education and training;
• Promoting and encouraging the private sector to play an active role in providing policy information, skills development, training delivery, and finance training;
• Developing mutual recognition of skills programs within ASEAN;
• Conducting research and development for new technologies; and
• Monitoring and evaluating the relevance of the labour market for education and TVET.

Education and TVET strategies are designed to ensure that youth are equipped with the skills that match industry needs. Quality Assurance Systems and the reform of the TVET teacher training curriculum are being undertaken to ensure quality TVET programmes and that TVET trainers have up-to-date and industry-matched knowledge and skills. Youth, especially school drop-outs, are prioritized given their potential role in the labour markets and the national economic development. The National Employment Agency (NEA) has been working towards addressing youth employment by:

• Providing information service to job seekers, employers, training providers, and the general public;
• Conducting study/research and developing a labour market information system;
• Providing accurate labour market information data.

For the time being, the private sector is involved with TVET in terms of curriculum design, standards framework development, and competency assessment for some courses such as ICT, construction, electric, machinery, wielding etc (CQF level 1-4). This collaboration is not with a specific business association but with individual private enterprises. The ministry invites and discusses with the private sector. The Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (MLVT) cooperates with the private sector on:

• Providing internships and job opportunities to students who graduated
• Collaborating to give input to develop standard training packages (competency standard, competency-based curriculum and competency assessment package)
• Providing tools and equipment to TVET schools
• Providing information about skills need

Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is considered as an important institutional set-up to improve the quality and relevance of TVET. There are several organisations that can play an important role in developing a sound PPP in Cambodia. These organisations are acting at the national level and by sector. The Cambodian Federation of Employers and Business Associations (CAMFEBA) is an overarching body representing and safeguarding the rights and interests of employers in term of labour issues. The Garment Manufacturers Association of Cambodia (GMAC) is an employers’ organisation of the apparel industry. 

CAMFEBA’s work on youth and employment is a good example of employers’ strategic interest in human resources development. CAMFEBA is an overarching body representing and safeguarding the rights and interests of employers regarding labour issues. CAMFEBA also acts as a training provider with a view to (WDT Cambodia, 2014):

• assist employers in strengthening their competitive edge through skills training and employee development;
• provide employers with a comprehensive range of practical, generic and customized training and development programmes for employees’ skills upgrading; and
• Update employers on the latest developments in human resources and industrial relations management.

GMAC identifies one of its missions as applying pressure on the Government to deliver an employment sector policy with more relevant programmes and appropriate certification. The association is planning to take a loan from the French development agency to set up a private vocational training centre focused on textiles and garments and with a strategic objective to develop skills which allow learners to move up the value chain (WDT Cambodia, 2014).

According to Oum and Ngov’s (2017) total labour demand and supply forecast, in 2019, the demand for labour will remain unchanged, exceeding the supply, particularly for the upper secondary (completed) level. Their forecasted employment by occupation (2017) shows that the average annual growth rate (2014-2019) of employment for technicians is around 2%, for plant and machine operators around 6%, while the annual growth rate of employment for professionals is the highest (around 15%).

By education level, the average annual growth rate of employment of TVET post-secondary diploma and pre-secondary diploma show the highest figures, around 16% and 21% respectively. They are followed by higher education, lower-secondary completed, and upper-secondary completed (around 8%, 6.5%, and 4.5% respectively).

Despite higher average annual growth rate of employment for TVET graduates, the share of TVET enrolment remains low if compared to the academic one. In Oum and Ngov (2017), the educational share of TVET is less than 2%.

To date, there is no empirical study on return to investment for TVET students. However, there is an increase in awareness of TVET by the public recently due to observed job needs as well as the effort to promote TVET on media.

Training Fund

Indonesia’s government offers special funds for promoting technical education targeted at SMEs. These funds are offered by the Ministry of Cooperatives and SMEs, as well as by Kemenperin. SMEs are also required to report their needs to Kemnaker’s website. In turn, they will receive training, including on how to improve turnover, marketing, company values, and HRD. 
More information can be found here.

Tax Depreciation

The Minister of Finance’s Regulation No. 128/2019 provides tax deductions of up to 200% for businesses investing in developing talent in Indonesia. However, the regulation is not yet fully put in practice.
More information can be found here.

According to the Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education – Ministry of Education and Culture (DTVE-MoEC), Indonesian government is making all efforts to significantly improve the effectiveness of vocational education by introducing a ‘demand-driven curricula’. This move is a result of the ‘Presidential Instruction Number 9 Year 2016 on Revitalizing SMK in the framework of Improving the Quality and Competitiveness of Indonesian Human Resources (Instruksi Presiden Nomor 9 Tahun 2016 Tentang Revitalisasi SMK dalam rangka Peningkatan Kualitasdan Daya Saing Sumber Daya Manusia Indonesia)’.² The expected resultant improvement of vocational education is aimed at enabling learners to be more competitive in the global labour markets.  In ensuring that vocational education is responsive to the labour market needs, the MoEC is now directing secondary vocational schools to focus on six priority areas: tourism, maritime programs, food security, creative industries, energy, and construction.

Under the Ministry of Industries (MOI), the government has a National Industry Development Plan 2025-2035, which focuses on development of human resources by facilitating Competency Testing Centre (Tempat Uji Kompetensi/TUK), human resources certification centre, and Indonesian National Work Competency Standards (Standar Kompetensi Kerja Nasional Indonesia/SKKNI) in the field of education.⁷ This is also aimed at developing a people-based economy, and enabling Small and Medium Industries (SMI) to be a main source of employment, productivity and economic growth between 2025-2035.⁷

TVET strategies in Indonesia can be summarised under the revitalisation strategy outlined in the report of the ‘Presidential Instruction Number 9 Year 2016 on Revitalizing TVET (SMK) in the framework of Improving the Quality and Competitiveness of Indonesian Human Resources’.² These are:

1. Revitalisation of vocational schools that a) supports the development of national priorities such as food security, energy security, business and tourism development, maritime development - especially in underdeveloped areas and border areas, and b) accelerates the development of Papua and West Papua;
2. Development of SMK model that is driven by cooperation with business/industry;
3. Development of skills based on the projected needs of the workforce;
4. Completion of curriculum in preparing competency of vocational education skills based on SKKNI (Indonesian National Work Competency Standard), KKNI and other relevant standards;
5. Improvement of the quality of learning and assessment of learning outcomes, with the application of competency certification for learners;
6. Improvement of quality assessment of education through accreditation;
7. Improvement of the quality of the implementation of entrepreneurship and work skills of SMK through “Teaching Factory” (Industry-like school environment for students’ work-based learning);
8. Improvement of the quality of facilities and infrastructure of learning in the classroom and workshop in SMK; and
9. Fulfilment of availability, quality, competence and professionalism of vocational education personnel through Teacher Certification, pre - & in-service programmes for TVET teachers, and apprenticeship programmes.

In Indonesia TVET policy is directed (i) to be in line with the national economic development programmes, (ii) to produce graduates that meet with the labour market, and (iii) to fulfill the industrial demands which at the end it would contribute to the national economic growth.⁴

Indonesian National Education System Law of 2003 stipulates the overall legal structure of the Indonesian education system including TVET. The Law states that all levels of education, including the structure attached to each of them are under the purview of the Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC). This is supported by Manpower Act No. 13 of 2003⁵ that regulates the national vocational training system (preparation for work), as well as the Teacher Law of 2005⁶ that regulates the teachers’ profession and its quality. In addition, Indonesia plans to establish a new law specifically on the TVET system in the country.

With regard to quality assurance, accreditation authorities have been established under decree No 38/2013 to ensure the accreditation standards of TVET providers. These accreditation bodies include National Accreditation Board of School/Religious School (Badan Akreditasi Nasional Sekolah/Madrasah/ or BAN-SM) for all institutions at the secondary level including TVET (SMK); Accreditation Authority for training providers (Lembaga Akreditasi- Lembaga Pelatihan Kerja or LA-LPK) for vocational training centres or BLK (Balai Latihan Kerja) under MoMT; and Badan Akreditasi Nasional-Perguruan Tinggi or BAN-PT National Accreditation Body for Higher Education responsible for polytechnic accreditation.

Indonesia lays special focus on the development of Public-Private-Partnerships (PPP) at all three levels - national, regional and international, to enhance the quality of TVET. In particular, partnerships with the private sector are being forged to diversify TVET and improve the delivery and quality of TVET programmes.³³

Private sector cooperation is an avenue also endorsed by the Government of Indonesia, as exhibited in a speech of President Joko Widodo: 

“I also think we have to involve the business world and industries because they have a better understanding about the needs of workforce, including in primary sectors such as maritime, tourism, agriculture, and creative economy. The system and demands of the business world and industries must be integrated in the vocational education and training system such as vocational schools or vocational training center (BLK).”³²

Additionally, Presidential Instruction Number 9 Year 2016 on ‘Revitalizing SMK in the framework of Improving the Quality and Competitiveness of Indonesian Human Resources’ (Instruksi Presiden Nomor 9 Tahun 2016 Tentang Revitalisasi SMK dalam rangka Peningkatan Kualitasdan Daya Saing Sumber Daya Manusia Indonesia)²  indicates Indonesia’s priority for Public-Private-Partnership.

PPP between TVET (SMK) and world of business and industries can take several forms, such as student internship placement, institutional refurbishment support, “train-the-trainer” programmes, and curriculum design development to ensure delivery of demand-driven TVET programmes.

Specifically, development of ‘demand-driven’ programmes is based on the concept of “Link” and “Match”. This concept highlights the need to make SMK programmes relevant by aligning them with labour market needs. One of the implementation strategies of link and match is the adoption of Dual Education System (Pendidikan Sistem Ganda or PSG) that systematically integrates and synchronises educational programmes in schools and skills acquisition programmes gained through direct work in the workplace. A common example of PSG in Indonesia is internship or industrial work practice programme (Prakerin), which involves activities such as: synchronisation and curriculum validation, guest teachers from industries and competency test.

During the development of National TVET curriculum, the Government through the MoEC always invites industry representatives to contribute in design and developing the curriculum after which it is passed to the provincial levels for implementation.

Although, presently there are no formalised public-private-partnerships in Indonesia, as a part of the link and match strategy between school programmes and industry demands, each vocational institution is encouraged to initiate cooperation with industries based on its location and needs.

Current trends and practices with regard to TVET in Indonesia are:

• Revitalising TVET (SMK)²
  Current Indonesian workforce needs to possess the skills required to compete in the 21^st Century. In this view the Government of Indonesia has embarked upon revitalising the TVET system to increase the employability and competitiveness of Indonesian labour force at national, regional and the global scene.

• Shifting the vocational education paradigm
  Lately, there has been a shift from a supply-based to a demand-based TVET system that is responsive to the needs of the labour market. The government is encouraging TVET providers to equip students with skills especially, 21st skills to enable them to become more employable after their graduations.

• Increasing more practical skills than knowledge (theoretical)
  Due to skills gap and mismatches in competences provided by TVET institutions and those required by industries, Indonesian government (through the MoEC) is prioritising skills over knowledge as a new education goal. This entails application of demand driven curriculum, involvement of industrial partners in conducting of TVET activities such as curriculum synchronisation, certification and assessment of students.

• Prioritising skills development in economically vibrant occupations
  The Government has identified key sectors and occupations to boost the economy, reduce imports and increase exports. These include, real estate, e-commerce, food security and cash crops (for boosting exports), and engineering and manufacturing (lean manufacturing, ship building, infrastructure, textiles, fashion, and industry). In addition, other strategic sectors include food and beverages, steel, mining, transportation services, ICT, cyber security, accounts and finance, marketing and sales, procurement and supply chain, and health and life sciences. Digital sector is witnessing rapid growth.³⁴ All of these fields call for the development of new skills through programmes offered at TVET (SMK) in the country. Also, a point of consideration is that employers prefer hiring qualified candidates with managerial, marketing, and soft skills and expertise.

The TVET Development Plan has been built based on specific guiding principles:

• Alignment with the TVET Strategy 2006-2020 but taking into account socio-economic evolution in Lao PDR;
• Alignment with the 8th NSEDP (National Socioeconomic Development Plan) 2016-2020; and
• Alignment with the targets of the ESDP 2016-2020 (Education and Sports Sector Development Plan).

Following the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development Plan 2016-2020, actions implemented should be based on:

• Linkages to the economic and social priorities as well as national and local needs analysis;
• Either a sector approach (examples: hospitality, financing, agriculture, garment, wood processing) or transversal approach (curriculum development, qualification system) but with applications through pilot projects and subsequent dissemination;
• Various financing sources: government, private sector, foreign donors and international organizations, and individuals when possible;
• Involvement of the Provinces for increasing roles in the local implementation of TVET schemes and better alignment with Department of Technical and Vocational Education (DTVE);
• Adaptation of the TVET system to the needs of employers based on labour market information system and in the absence of it, based on:
• signals from employers gathered by the National Training Council (NTC) and strengthened Trade Working Groups (TWGs);
• Improved relations between the management of the TVET schools and provincial stakeholders; and
• Information from tracer studies.
• Increased focus on learning outcomes through dissemination of competency based training, DCT; and
• Focus on high demand sectors: construction, mechanics, hospitality, electricity, furniture, automotive and agriculture.

Based on the TVET Strategy and Master Plan, training providers are encouraged to target several groups, including new labour market entrants (school leavers), existing workers, young people, older adults, and disadvantaged groups (e.g. the poor, the populations of remote rural areas, and ethnic groups). The government is providing incentives for disadvantaged groups to participate in TVET, through voucher schemes and scholarships. They currently have scholarships, but the amount will be increased to account for inflation, and larger amounts will be allocated for higher levels of TVET and for ethnic groups. The Asian Development Bank’s Strengthening-TVET project (STVET) includes support for the development of a training assistance voucher programme. (source: ILO 2016, p. 14-15)

Following key legislation has been put forth to achieve TVET goals and implement related strategies:

• Decree on Approval and Enactment of the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development Plan 2016-2020 (currently – 2017 - in force);
• The Education Law of the Lao PDR ref No. 04/NA dated July 3rd 2007;
• Pursuance to the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Law, ref No. 42/NA dated December 23rd 2013 (source: MoES 2015, p. 40);
• Decree No. 036 on Technical and Vocational Education and Training and Skills Development distinguishing between the functions of the MoES and the MoLSW (ILO 2016, p.12); and
• Decision No. 155 on the decentralisation of education (ILO 2016, p.13);
• TVET Law has been amended and approved by National Assembly on 12 June 2019 and ready for dissemination in the beginning of 2020.

Currently, public-private partnership in TVET is being achieved through two modalities. One is the participation of employers in policy-making and implementation, mainly through the National Training Council (NTC) and Trade Working Groups (TWGs). The other modality involves the supply of TVET by private providers.

In relation to employer participation in policy-making and implementation, the Chair of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry is designated as the vice-chair of NTC. Also, the two TWGs for furniture and printing are led by employers. In January 2011, three new TWGs were established for priority skill areas including hotel and restaurant, construction and mining industry (UNESCO 2013, p. 41)

Weak Role of Employers

Most employers in Lao PDR are small and medium-sized businesses. Except for in a few booming industries such as mining and hydropower, a large number of employers are still relying on recruiting unskilled workers. Thus, it cannot be said that there is currently a strong employer interest in skills development. Despite this limitation, there is much room for enhancing the role of employers in TVET. Private sector intervention will generally not happen without facilitation by another party, whether it be government, donors or NGOs. Employers are more likely to engage in skills development at any level if the benefits of doing so are apparent, the business environment is favourable and there is minimal bureaucracy attached. Their engagement is most effective if it takes place early in the planning process.

At the national level, the participation of employer representatives in the NTC does not seem to be based on a thorough internal consultation process within employer organizations. This may contribute to the limited impact of their involvement. Systematic involvement of employer representatives is absent at the provincial level.

At the sectoral level, there are only a few TWGs. Their main focus has been the design and implementation of specific training programmes in certain geographic areas (e.g. Vientiane). They have had little impact on national policy issues such as curriculum development and qualification system design. Employer involvement in such issues appears to be as a result of individual invitation, implying no collective engagement. In short, there still exists a strong need to improve the role of employers. They should be encouraged to give priority to recruitment of skilled workers holding TVET qualifications and to cooperate with TVET institutions to accept students for internship. (UNESCO 2013, p. 41).

As a wider policy coordination mechanism, the National Training Council (NTC) has been functional since 2002. It is comprised of 24 representatives from relevant ministries and is chaired by the Deputy Minister of Education. The Deputy Minister of the MoLSW and the Chairperson of the Lao National Chamber of Commerce and Industry are joint Vice-Chairpersons. Three MOES staff are assigned to the NTC for the implementation of its activities. The NTC’s responsibilities are in the areas of (i) the development and recommendations of TVET policy, (ii) coordination between public and private sectors in matters concerning skills training, (iii) the establishment, support and monitoring of Trade Working Groups (TWG) for identifying occupational/skills areas with representatives of enterprise associations and the public sector, and (iv) determination and development of occupational standards. This coordination system was expected to play a critical role in the implementation of the TVET Master Plan. (UNESCO 2013, p. 31).

Associations

Associations in the garment, furniture, handicraft and hospitality sectors have established their own skills development centers.

For example, the Skills Development Centre of the Lao Garment Industry Association provides short courses of up to 35 days to workers following the ASEAN Common Competence Program (ACCP) developed by the ASEAN Federation of Textile Industries and using industrial equipment.

As international experience shows, these institutions might have the tendency to extend their training offer in the future, if they feel that the training delivered by MoES does not respond to the needs of their industry.

Another example of the involvement of the private sector but, in this case, with the strong support of donors, is the Lao National Institute of Tourism and Hospitality (Lanith) created with the support of Luxembourg Cooperation. LANITH is expected to receive further support of the Luxembourg and Swiss governments. In addition to organizing pre-service and in-service training for the personnel of hospitality sector (more than 1,500 persons for the past three years), LANITH extends its support to those TVET schools which offer hospitality courses. This cooperation will address some of constraints that TVET schools face, namely infrastructure limitation and a lack of qualified trainers, so as to support the fast annual growth of the sector (20%) (MoES 2015, p.21-22)

Priority Sectors

The impact of ASEAN Economic Community is uncertain but will definitively affect the evolution of the skills. As recent ILO study shows, the sectors which will see the highest increase of labour force until 2025 are furniture, vehicles, trade and transportation and services.

The priority sectors for Lao PDR are:

• Agriculture
• Tourism and hospitality
• Construction and infrastructure (MoES 2015, p.14)

Skills in Demand

According to Lateef (n.d., p. 29) from ADB and UNESCO (2013, p. 29) the following 4 priority skills areas (based on labour market assessment) have been identified:

• Construction and building
• Mechanical and machinery repair
• Furniture making
• Basic business skills

Tax Depreciation

Many financial incentive programmes have been introduced by the Malaysian government to increase engagement in the HRD programme. To highlight here is the NDTS programme, in which the participating companies are allowed to claim a double tax deduction on training expenses incurred by companies. Additionally, the companies also receive a monthly financial incentive for participating in the NDTS programme.
More information can be found here.

The TVET strategy is defined by the current and anticipated future educational and work landscape, according to which:

• 60% of the jobs that will be created are expected to require TVET-related skills. In that regard, TVET is identified as a game changer in how Malaysia produces skilled talent; and
• TVET is seen as an important pathway for vocational education and skills development, as well as a major platform for lifelong learning. This is based on Shift 4 of the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015-2025 (Higher Education) that focuses on Quality of TVET Graduates.

In line with the TVET mission, the promotion of TVET programmes is focussed on:

1. improving the efficiency of the labour market to accelerate economic growth;
2. transforming TVET to meet industry demand;
3. strengthening lifelong learning for skills enhancement; and
4. improving the quality of the education system for better student outcomes and institutional excellence.

Specifically, four strategies and corresponding initiatives are based on the global strategy for TVET recommended by UNESCO.^2,3 These are:

• Strategy A: Enhancing industry-led curriculum
• Strategy B: Creating integrated and coordinated governance structure.
• Strategy C: Streamlining qualifications
• Strategy D: Rebranding of TVET

A number of laws and acts have been put forward and implemented for the development of a demand-led skilled workforce steered by technical and vocational skills training. In general, these align with the national educational and employment goals and lay the foundation for formulation of strategies. Some key ones are:

• The Education Act 1996 (Act 550) covers all education levels. It primarily focuses on pre-primary, primary, secondary and post-secondary education. The Act stipulates the use of the national language (Bahasa Melayu) as the medium of instruction and calls on all schools to implement the national curriculum, unless exempted. This Act stipulates that technical education in national secondary schools and other educational institutions including polytechnics are legal entities in the National Education System. Other programmes, such as at Community Colleges can also be established by the Minister in charge.
• The National Skills Development Act 2006 (Act 625) has established the National Skills Development Council and the National Occupational Skills Standards (NOSS).
• Malaysia Board of Technologists Act (MBOT, Act 768) has established the professional body – MBOT¹, which is responsible for the Professional Recognition of Technologists and Technicians in relation to technology and technical fields. MBOT expands its function vertically and horizontally, whereby it looks at technology-based professions that cut across discipline-based fields. It involves a whole range of aspects starting from conceptual design to a realised technology and covers Technicians (with SKM/Diploma Level), as well as Technologists (Bachelor’s Degree level and above). As a whole, these professionals (Technologists and Technicians) have integrated roles from concept to realisation.

According to the 11th Malaysia Plan, 60% of the 1.5 million jobs that will be created between 2016 and 2020 will require TVET-related skills. Resultantly, the five-year plan includes initiatives to enable industry-led TVET to meet the demand for such graduates, as well as the demands of industry 4.0. The Malaysian Government is now following a more coordinated approach to boost TVET by engaging and partnering with the private sector in its efforts to meet new demands.

In addition, the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), as part of a research cooperation project between GIZ and OECD, has been a part of the Work based learning (WBL) programme. The programme aims to revitalise the TVET Teachers Training Systems in Malaysia through a PPP model, involving the private sector, public universities and the government. In cooperation with industry a new, integrated occupational-technical and academic curriculum has been developed, which contains elements of coordinated classroom and workplace learning. The WBL structured degree programme consists of 6 semesters in the institution and 2 semesters in the industry.

In the past, Malaysia has engaged the private sector in defining specifications of competencies under the National Occupational Skills Standard (NOSS) - it was developed together with the industrial experts in line with the provisions under National Skills Development Act 2006 (Act 652). The NOSS lists out the competencies expected of a skilled worker who is gainfully employed in Malaysia for an occupational area, level and pathway. The NOSS provides opportunities to community and industry to access services offered by the Department of Skills Development (DSD) and other related agencies. Likewise, the DSD provides assistance and guidance to ensure that all companies and enterprises participate in the National Dual Training System, which is an industry-oriented training programme that combines workplace and institutional training. The National Development Planning Committee also established the Industry Skills Council (ISC), which enhances quality and delivery of TVET programmes to improve graduate employability by enabling industry-led programmes to reduce skills mismatch. The ISC, in collaboration with industry players, identifies relevant competencies for each sector and sub-sector. The Industry Working Group also recommends policies, strategies and action plans for the development of skilled and competent human resource for industry to ISC.

Apart from this, the Human Resources Development Council (HRDC), runs apprenticeship and training grant schemes, as well as other basic skills training programmes in: mechatronics, hotel and tourism, manufacturing, and information technology. To encourage the private sector to support traineeship programmes, under the apprenticeship scheme, employers are eligible for a 100% reimbursement of training costs made up of apprentices’ monthly allowances, insurance and training materials.

To promote TVET at secondary level, traineeship programmes are available for students who are enrolled in upper secondary schools in the skill stream. The programmes are coordinated by schools and the industry sector, and require students to work in industry two days a week.

Malaysia Plan  

During the Tenth Malaysia Plan (10MP), 2011-2015, the Government introduced several ways to improve the labour market and transform the education system. One of achievements in 10MP was the creation of 1.8 million new jobs from 3.3% in 2010 to 2.9% in 2015. The government also introduced the minimum wage that benefited 1.9 million payee recipients. Specifically in education, there has been an increase in enrollment at all levels, from preschool to tertiary. Annual recruitment for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) also increased from 113,000 in 2010 to 164,000 in 2013.  In continuation to this, the Eleventh Malaysia Plan (11MP), 2016-2020, furthers the agenda to produce knowledgeable and skilled human capital to compete in the global economy. The economic agenda outlined in the 11th Plan is expected to create 1.5 million jobs ahead of year 2020 with the aim to improve productivity of labour and reduce dependence on low-skilled foreign workers. 60% of the jobs to be created are expected to require TVET skills.  

Human Capital Development 

Human capital development is a critical factor in generating and maintaining the country's economic growth. The ability to provide highly skilled workforce is essential to support the transition of all economic sectors towards country's aspirations. In line with the 11MP, the government is focusing on four priority areas to:

1. Improve labour market efficiency
2. Transform TVET to meet industry demand
3. Strengthen lifelong learning to improve skills
4. Improve the quality of education by improving student outcomes

There have been growing expectations in recent years for reforms of Myanmar's national education system that will improve access, quality and equity in the main education sub-sectors, including TVET. In response to these expectations, the Ministry of Education initiated a 3,5-year Comprehensive Education Sector Review, which culminated in the launch of the National Education Strategic Plan (NESP) 2016-2021.

The NESP provides the government, education stakeholders and citizens with a roadmap for improving quality education for students at all levels of the national education system. As such, it also serves as a strategic framework for TVET reforms in Myanmar.

The following three complementary and linked strategies and programmes will be implemented to achieve the Transformational Shift for TVET described in the NESP^1(44-45):

1. Expanding access to TVET for various target groups including disadvantaged populations and people with disabilities (Integrated TVET programme);
2. Strengthening the quality and relevance of TVET (TVET quality and relevance programme); and
3. Strengthening TVET management (TVET management programme).

The relevant legal framework for Myanmar's TVET sector comprises the following:

• The Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2008);
• The National Education Law (NEL) (2014) and NEL Amendment (2015);
• The Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education Law (1974), amended in 1989; and
• The Employment and Skills Development Law (2013).

The Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2008) provides the foundation legal framework for the education sector in Myanmar. Article 28 of the Constitution stipulates that the Union shall:

1. earnestly strive to improve education and health of the people;
2. enact the necessary law to enable National people to participate in matters of their education and health;
3. implement free, compulsory primary education system; and
4. implement a modern education system that will promote all-around correct thinking and a good moral character contributing towards the building of the Nation.

Article 366 of the Constitution states that: Every citizen, in accord with the educational policy laid down by the Union:

1. has the right to education;
2. shall be given basic education which the Union prescribes by law as compulsory; and
3. has the right to conduct scientific research, explore science, work with creativity and write to develop the arts and conduct research freely in other branches of culture.

An important milestone for education sector reform in Myanmar was the approval by Parliament of a National Education Law (NEL) in September 2014 and the passing of the NEL Amendment in 2015.

The NEL and NEL Amendment provide a national framework for the implementation of a wide range of complementary reforms across the national education system, such as: recognition of the right of all citizens to free, compulsory education at the primary level; establishment of a standards-based education quality assurance system; expansion of the basic education system to 13 years; support for the learning of nationalities’ languages and culture; and greater decentralisation within the education system. An additional benefit of the NEL is that Myanmar is now fully aligned with ASEAN members in terms of the number of years of schooling under basic education.^1(p12)

Also the role of TVET is clearly defined and classified in the NEL. The law differentiates between:

• Basic level of TVET, which can be accessed after completion of primary education
• Middle level of TVET which can be accessed after completion of lower secondary education
• Diploma (pre-graduate) level of TVET which can be accessed after completion of higher secondary education
• Non-formal TVET comprising any kind of technical and vocational skills training that government or private organisations provide under the existing regulations/standards in order to promote the development of skills, not restricted to any educational status, gender or age.

TVET under the Ministry of Education (MOE) is regulated by the Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education Law No. 4 of 1974, with amendments in 1983 (Law No. 8) and 1989 (Law No. 20/89). It was drafted to regulate all types of vocational education and training within the agricultural and technical trades, comprising science and technology trades. The objectives of this law are:

• To nurture technicians and specialists required for the establishment of industries
• To nurture luminaries required for the effective utilisation of sophisticated technology for the development of agriculture and livestock activities
• To expand or increase vocational education courses which are in-line with the country´s political, economic and social systems
• To nurture technicians and intellectuals who have positive attitude and strong nationalist sentiments

The necessity of a new TVET law has been intensively discussed and recognised among Myanmar stakeholders and a draft TVET bill was developed and submitted to Parliament in 2015. The draft bill was, however, not discussed by Parliament before the national elections in November 2015, and has since been revised by the new Government. It is expected to be put forward for discussion by Parliament again in 2017.

The new Employment and Skills Development Law (ESDL)⁷ was promulgated in August 2013 and forms a second important legal basis for TVET in Myanmar. It regulates various forms of skills development for workers who have already entered the world of work and for those who are about to enter the world of work. The law also regulates the establishment and functions of the National Skills Standards Authority (NSSA) and the introduction of a skills development levy for financing of training initiated by the employers.

While the NSSA has already been established in 2007, the implementation of the skills development levy including the respective institutional and administrative framework is still to be achieved. There is also a need to harmonise the existing Agricultural, Technical and Vocational Design Law (respectively the future new TVET Law) for initial training under various line ministries and the Employment and Skills Development Law on dual and further training. For example, it is not yet clear to which extent the NSSA shall be responsible for the development of occupational standards under the formal TVET stream and in how far the skills development levy shall form part of a national TVET financing system. In other words, it still needs to be determined in how far an integration of the formal TVET subsystem and the skills development subsystem is intended. The new TVET Law is supposed to clarify this issue.

Myanmar's TVET system is dominated by a supply-driven approach from both public and private providers.² This lack of demand-orientation also results in survey findings which show that the vocational education system in Myanmar is largely unknown to business owners. Almost 80% of business owners surveyed by DEval stated that they had not known of the TVET system, and less than 1% of surveyed firms had ever cooperated with a TVET institution. Moreover, almost no employees of surveyed Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) had undergone formal vocational education from a private or public institution.¹⁹ However, things are changing for the better.

Of late, at the macro policy level, National Level Committee including executives from private sector institutions have begun to engage in a more systematic manner to help with the demand-orientation of TVET. Although limited, efforts are underway to involve employer representatives in the planning stages of TVET (e.g. determining training contents, developing curricula, fixing the number of students needed in specific occupations). At Meso level or the school level, TVET schools under DTVET have started the process of cooperation and collaboration with local industries.

More systematic business and industry involvement has been initiated by the National Skill Standard Authority (NSSA). Business associations and companies are engaged through NSSA's Sectorial Committees in the development of occupational skill standards. Cooperation also takes places with companies who send their workers for skills assessments organised by the NSSA.

Among business associations, initiatives and plans to organise trainings in collaboration with relevant ministries are slowly picking up pace. Cooperation seems, however, limited to using experts from business and industry associations or professional associations to train people in government-owned training centres.^2(p112)

Starting in 2014, the Union of Myanmar Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry (UMFCCI) has been involved in the development of a regional standard and training programmes for in-company trainers. A first pilot course was implemented in cooperation with the Myanmar Construction Entrepreneurs Association (MCEA) and GIZ for supervisors from the construction sector in 2016. For the implementation of such training programmes and its support to the development of Myanmar's TVET system, UMFCCI has established a small TVET unit.

Myanmar's economy is dominated by agriculture. But the recently initiated social, economic and political reforms have led to a GDP growth rate of around 8 per cent, which is changing Myanmar's economy and labour market very quickly.

According to the World Bank, the agriculture sector employed over half of the workforce in 2012 and accounted for 36.4 percent of GDP, compared to 37.3 percent for services and 26.3. percent for industry.²⁵ With the structural modernisation of the economy underway, it will be essential for Myanmar to build up the right skills in its workforce.²⁴ Already today, companies and investors identify a lack of skilled workers as a serious obstacle to their operations, and this situation will likely become even more acute in the future.

As many of the jobs likely to be created as Myanmar industrialises will require strong technical and vocational skills, it is paramount for the Myanmar government to provide more and better TVET. Investments will take time, however, and Myanmar needs to develop the right skills in a very short timeframe. According to the OECD, a focus should therefore be placed on training and retraining adults as well.

Access to adequate and labour-market oriented TVET also needs to be provided to the estimated one million lower secondary school-drop outs. According to the Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (IHLCS) carried out by the ADB covering the period of 2000-2012, only 60% of all entrants remain in school after grade 5, and only 30% finish grade 9. In absolute numbers, out of 1.260.000 children entering primary school, only 108.000 students pass the high school graduation examination.²⁶

Figure 3: Cohort Transition across Grades and Levels^{27(slide 8)}

Training Fund

The government of Singapore provides different grants and initiatives to companies for human resource development. These are done through several lead agencies and also through professional business associations. One of the key agencies is Enterprise Singapore, who have a plethora of grants and initiatives to help businesses in people development.
More information can be found here.
The Singapore government provides grants to support many SMEs in the development of their people. Enterprise Singapore, who is the key engine supporting SMEs in Singapore, has a primary objective of helping SMEs with worker development and business innovation. An initiative called the “Global Ready Talent Programme” is available for SMEs and this scheme provides subsidies for internships so that companies will hire workers and train them for the future. It also aims to build a pipeline of global-ready talent for Singapore enterprises through exposing more Singaporeans to internships and overseas work opportunities. Singapore enterprises offering student internships or management associate programmes are eligible for up to 70% funding support on qualifying costs.
More information can be found here.

Sectoral Manpower Development Plan⁷

SkillsFuture Singapore (SSG) will work closely with employers and other key stakeholders to design and implement a framework to enable individuals to advance in their careers by climbing skill ladders. 

In collaboration with sector lead agencies, employers, and unions, SSG will co-develop medium-term manpower and skills plans for each key sector, in order to support industry growth and productivity efforts. These Sectoral Manpower Strategies will identify sector-specific manpower and skills requirements over a five-year period, and outline a holistic package of measures to meet these requirements.

Industry Transformation Maps (ITMs)⁸ & Skills Frameworks (SFs)¹¹

Under the S$4.5 billion Industry Transformation Programme, roadmaps have been developed for 23 industries to address issues within each industry and deepen partnerships between Government, firms, industries, trade associations and chambers.

The FEC will take overall responsibility for the implementation of the ITMs. To do so, the FEC has six sub-committees, with each sub-committee overseeing a group of ITMs within the same broad cluster of industries. The ITMs are grouped into six clusters,⁸ each comprising a group of them from the same broad cluster of industries, namely, manufacturing, built environment, trade and connectivity, essential domestic services, modern services and lifestyle. Each ITM will consist of a growth and competitiveness plan, supported by four pillars i.e. productivity, jobs & skills, innovation, and trade and internationalisation.^17,5

The Skills Framework¹¹, which is an integral component of the Industry Transformation Maps is co-created by employers, industry associations, unions and the Government for the Singaporean workforce. The Skills Framework provides key information on sector and employment, career pathways, occupations/job roles, as well as existing and emerging skills required for the identified occupations/job roles. It also provides a list of training programmes for skills upgrading and mastery.

The Skills Framework aims to create a common skills language for individuals, employers and training providers. This further helps to facilitate skills recognition and support the design of training programmes for skills and career development. The Skills Framework is also developed with the objectives to build deep skills for a lean workforce, enhance business competitiveness and support employment and employability.

‘Skills-Future Singapore Agency Act 2016 (No. 24 of 2016)’³ and ‘Workforce Singapore Agency Act (Chapter 305D)’⁴ are the two acts that govern TVET strategy and implementation in Singapore.

Private sector plays a significant role in developing a skilled, future-ready and an employable workforce in Singapore and is an integral part of the national TVET System.

In order to a) identify and promote the enhancement of industry-specific skills, b) enhance individuals’ employability, and c) increase workforce productivity and improve the international competitiveness of commerce and industry, the Workforce Singapore Agency Act (Chapter 305D) along with other functions mandates the Workforce Singapore to collaborate with and support employers, relevant representatives of commerce or industry and public sector agencies in Singapore.¹⁵

IHLs foster partnerships with the private sector in myriad ways. For instance, ITE’s partnerships with the private sector are established through the following programmes (fig. 8):

Figure 8. ITE’s Industry Gateways to build partnerships with the private sector^37(p7)

ITE’s strong engagement with industry can be seen from:

• Over 2600 employers as co-learning partners offering internships and workplace learning for students; and
• Over 200 active industry partnerships for authentic learning, industry & technology update and capability development.

In the wake of industry 4.0, a highly-skilled Singaporean workforce - that is future ready - is seen as the key contributor in advancing a world-class economy that is diverse, inclusive and globally competitive. As a result, the Government continues to strengthen and promote practice-based curricula to give learners real work experiences that will add mileage to their career progression. To better prepare Singaporean students for the future world of work, schools have introduced career guidance programmes to help them discover and explore their strengths and interests. The following efforts are examples of current trends and practices:

Earn and Learn Programme⁹

The SkillsFuture Earn and Learn Programme (ELP) is a work-learn programme that gives fresh graduates from polytechnics and the ITE a head-start in careers related to their discipline of study. It provides them with more opportunities, after graduation, to build on the skills and knowledge they acquired in school, as well as helps support their transition into the workforce.

Participating employers can recruit local fresh talent, within three years of graduation or the Operationally Ready Date for National Servicemen and prepare them to take up suitable job roles. Participants in the programme can look forward to a structured career progression pathway within the organisation.

This programme is designed in collaboration with the industry to ensure relevance to employers and the growth of the sector. Since 2015, the SkillsFuture Earn and Learn Programme has been introduced in 25 sectors, including Aerospace, Biomedical Sciences, Food Services, Games Development, Healthcare, Hotel, Information Technology and Retail.

Apprentice-based Work-Learn Technical Diplomas¹⁰

Similar to the SkillsFuture Earn and Learn Programmes, the new Work-Learn Technical Diploma (WLTD) programmes are developed and delivered in close partnership with key employers. Learning takes place both at the workplace and on campus, with 70 per cent of the curriculum time dedicated to On-the-Job Training. The Institute of Technical Education (ITE) will award these WLTDs. 

The WLTD programmes last between 2.5 and 3 years. Up to 120 places across the four programmes have been offered for the first intake in April 2018 . As a start, employers such as Certis CISCO, ST Electronics, Keppel Offshore & Marine, Sembcorp Marine Ltd, St Luke’s Eldercare and AWWA have committed to providing training places for the WLTD programmes, and ITE looks forward to more companies coming onboard. With the new WLTDs, ITE graduates can look forward to career progression opportunities after completion of the programmes.

Education and Career Guidance (ECG)¹²

Education and Career Guidance (ECG) is about equipping students, as well as adults with the necessary knowledge, skills and values to make informed education and career decisions. Through ECG, students and adults will be encouraged to learn more about their own interests, abilities and passions. By exploring the learning or education pathways and career opportunities available across different industries, individuals can take positive steps towards realising their aspirations, as well as embrace learning throughout their life.

A more structured and coordinated ECG system will provide relevant and timely support to individuals at different life stages – starting from the early schooling years and continuing throughout one’s working life:

Primary, Secondary, Junior College and Centralised Institute students: A structured ECG curriculum has been in place for Primary 3–6 students since 2012 and for students at the secondary level since 2014. On top of other education planning and career exploration programmes and activities, an interactive web-based MySkillsFuture portal (https://www.myskillsfuture.sg/content/portal/en/index.html) that helps students discover their own strengths and interests will complement the ECG curriculum. ECG Counsellors in MOE schools will provide individual counselling or group guidance for students in education and career choices. Aside from supporting and collaborating with the relevant personnel to drive and facilitate the provision of quality ECG experiences for students, counsellors will communicate and engage with parents and industry partners where required.

ITE and polytechnic students: A minimum of 40–60 hours across two years for ITE students and three years for polytechnic students will be set aside for ECG. Students can engage in ECG-related activities and lessons conducted in the classroom, and participate in out-of-classroom activities such as industry immersion programmes, learning journeys and career talks. This will help them to continue developing skills to make informed career decisions and prepare them for a smooth transition into the workplace. Students will also be able to meet with ECG Counsellors in small groups or through individual appointments.

Students from the publicly-funded universities: Dedicated career services offices or centres on campus offer career counselling services and preparation programmes that will help students identify and prepare for careers related to their strengths, interests and fields of study.

Adults: They may access career and training advisory services through the Workforce Singapore’s (WSG) network of career centres. New workforce entrants, mid-career switchers or individuals in career transition can benefit from the suite of services provided by the career centres. The services include career coaching, employability skills workshops, networking sessions and more.

Training Fund

In Thailand, training funds are offered under the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC). EEC is applying a demand-driven concept to propel manpower production to support the critical needs of industries in the area, which is implemented under the coordination of the Eastern Economic Corridor Human Development Centre (EEC-HDC). One approach is for the public and private sectors to collaborate in creating demand-driven curricula, with subsidies and support for speakers, and the provision of tools and equipment. Another approach is for the public and private sectors to provide short courses (non-degree) subsidised at 50% and an employment guarantee for at least one year after training in the private sector.
More information can be found here.

Tax Depreciation

Thailand’s government further promotes private sector engagement in technical education through tax incentives for companies. In this context, the Skills Development Promotion Act (A.D. 2002) encourages private companies and business organisations to allow their employees to obtain certification or improve their skills by providing incentives in the private sector. The incentives include tax exemptions for companies based on the percentage of training expenses of all employees, an exemption on import duties on training equipment, and reductions of utility bills etc. 
More information can be found here.

As stated in the previous section on the governing legislation and the authority given by the legislation to the MOE and OVEC, this section examines the strategy established by the MOE and OVEC and illustrates its alignment with the National Strategy and additional plans.

Under the Constitution of Thailand, all ministries and government agencies are bound to operate in compliance with the National Strategy and comply with additional plans, namely the 12th National Economic and Social Development Plan (2017-2021) and the National Education Strategy 2017-2036. The objectives of the MOE operational strategy are given below.  

The MOE operational strategy aims to develop an educational strategy that will enhance the quality of education in Thailand, develop the human resources and support the country’s sustainable development. The components of the MOE action plan and its connection to the National Strategy, the NESDP and the National Education Plan are:

1. Development of educational curriculum and evaluation mechanisms to ensure that students have the necessary skills and knowledge for the 21^st Century;

2. Development of teachers and educational officers with the capabilities to effectively perform their functions in such a way that respond to the needs of the country; 

3. Development of human resources in accordance with the requirements of the country by producing capable TVET teachers who will be able to train students effectively; 

4. Expansion of access to education and life-long learning so that all students, including disadvantaged groups, enjoy a good quality of education.; 

5. Development of digital systems for education in order to expand access to knowledge platforms for educational institutions; 

6. Establishment of a mechanism that promotes stakeholder involvement thereby improving the agility of the management system in the education field.

As stated earlier, the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) is the primary authority for matters related to TVET in Thailand. The OVEC operational strategy must comply with the objectives set forth by the MOE operational strategy, the National Strategy and relevant plans, although the methods for achieving such objectives are decided by the OVEC.

The OVEC’s objectives include:

1. National Security through Vocational Education: Equip students with the values of a responsible citizen and strengthen stability for them from non-traditional threats. 

2. Competitive advantage through TVET personnel development: Prepare the TVET students with the competences demanded by the industries, and enhance qualifications, research and innovation.

3. Economic advancement by building the capacity of TVET personnel: Develop TVET personnel with competences relevant to Thailand 4.0, enhance training deliveries for TVET personnel and students, develop curricula and establish cooperation in developing TVET personnel capacities.

4. Equal opportunity and access to vocational education: Ensure equal access to quality TVET education for all through adequate infrastructure and a data base system.

5. Environmentally friendly TVET: Encourage environmental awareness as part of TVET education.

6. Reforming and enhancing the management of Vocational Education: Develop the vocational management system and network, while developing a quality assurance system.

The figure below illustrates how the OVEC operational strategy, the MOE operational strategy, the National Education Plan and the NESD plan link back to the 20-year National Strategy (Please view the table below). The detailed projects and action plan of the OVEC and MOE are not included in this Country Profile as when preparing their annual budgets, each ministry and governmental entity is obliged to submit their annual action plan on activities for the next government budget year.

The detail of activities planned to be executed by both MOE and OVEC will have major or minor changes from year to year, but the linkages to the strategy objective set out in the MOE and OVEC operational strategy and the linkages to the National Strategy 20 Years and additional plans will not differ.

It can therefore be concluded that TVET in Thailand operates in accordance with the broader framework determined by the MOE and as dictated by the national objectives stated in the National Strategy, the NESD Plan and the National Education Plan.

The relevant governmental bodies and agencies are allocated authority and mandates through the legislation. These can be divided into two main categories:  legislation concerning the regulation of a subject, in this case Education and TVET; and legislation related to the authority and mandate of government entities.

National Education Act and Vocational Education Act

The overarching legislation for education in Thailand is the National Education Act (1999 and amended in 2002). The Act covers the basic guidelines and objectives for the education system in Thailand, in which the government seeks to provide equal rights and opportunities to education for all Thai citizens for a duration of at least 12 years ^[29]. In addition, this National Education Act also mentions, albeit briefly, TVET in Thailand, but crucially allocates the authority for matters related to TVET as determined in the Vocational Education Act (2008). The Act oversees and governs matters related to TVET and fosters human resource development and economic growth in the country. In addition, the National Education Act gives authority and responsibility to the Ministry of Education to oversee the issues related to education in Thailand. The Vocational Education Act also gives authority to the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) to oversee matters related to TVET in Thailand. The National Education Act is thus the overarching legislature and the Vocational Education Act is subordinate to it. That said, the Vocational Education Act retains autonomy in the details related to TVET in Thailand.

 Ministry of Education and the Office of the Vocational Education Commission

With legislation differentiating between Education and TVET, the separation and determination of the responsibilities of the relevant government entities is required. The Ministry of Education Separation Act states that the Ministry of Education (MOE) shall be the primary authority with the mandate for overseeing and steering the entire education system in Thailand to align with the 20-year National Strategy and additional plans. When it comes to TVET, the Separation Act allocates the authority and mandate for overseeing matters related to TVET to the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC), with the proviso that the MOE’s operational strategy aligns with the National Strategy and relevant plans. This means the OVEC’s operational strategy must also be in line with the MOE’s operation strategy, the National Strategy and relevant plans. From a top-down perspective, the National Education Act and the MOE govern the entire education system in Thailand, but when it comes to TVET, the mandate is given over to the Vocational Education Act and the OVEC to execute the broader strategy.

Dual Vocational Education

Whenever private sector cooperation in vocational education is mentioned, the image that immediately comes to mind is the involvement of the private sector in the dual vocational education system. Thailand embarked on the journey towards a dual vocational education system in 1984 with the primary purpose of not only including private sector involvement in vocational education, but also to foster stronger cooperation between the private sector and TVET institutions.

In the early stages of Thailand’s move towards dual vocational education, the German government provided technical support through the commission of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, today known as the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. Since 2008, Thailand has successfully executed the organisation of dual vocational education with the close cooperation of the private sector.

The Vocational Education Act B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008) clearly defines and establishes three types of vocational education management.

1. Formal vocational education
2. Informal vocational education
3. Dual vocational education

The Act also defines dual vocational education as a vocational education system that requires agreement between private sector and TVET institutions. Unanimous agreement between the two actors include the areas of curriculum design, teaching deliveries and assessment and evaluation. The student is also required by the Act to spend learning and training time at a TVET institution to acquire the theoretical knowledge of his/her chosen profession and spend time at a company to acquire practical knowledge. Dual vocational education is aimed at training future workforces with the relevant competences and skills to match labour market demands, the 20-year National Strategy, the NESDP and the National Education Plan.

Clause 52 of the Vocational Education Act states that the criteria and requirements with which TVET institutions and the private sector must comply in order to offer a dual vocational education shall be determined by the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC). In OVEC’s announcement on 20 August 2020 on the conditions for organising dual vocational education, it was stated that the following conditions from TVET institutions seeking to offer dual vocational education were required.

• Executives and employees of the TVET institution must continue promoting dual vocational education;
• TVET institutions must offer subjects for the dual vocational education that are relevant to the private sector;
• TVET institutions must prepare and sign a Memorandum of Understanding with the private sector;
• TVET institutions must prepare and sign an employment training contract with the private sector;
• TVET institutions and private sector must develop lesson plans, occupational training plan and supervision plans;
• TVET institutions to organise an introduction for students prior to the occupational training;
• TVET institutions to prepare students with the relevant knowledge before the occupational training begins;
• TVET institutions to assign teacher supervision to the private sector;
• TVET institutions to monitor and evaluate the organisation of occupational training with the private sector;
• TVET institutions to inform the private sector company, students and parents about the organisation of the dual vocational education.

The Act also specifies certain conditions for private sector companies that seek to enter into cooperation with TVET institutions as part of the dual vocational education. The conditions are as follows:

• Private sector to promote and support the student’s development progress;
• Private sector to organise occupational training in tandem with the student’s major;
• Private sector to prepare and sign the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the TVET institution;
• Private sector to prepare and sign an employment training contract with the TVET institutions;
• Private sector and TVET institutions to develop lesson plans, occupational training plan and supervision plans;
• Private sector and TVET institutions must evaluate the occupational training;
• Private sector to have a qualified in-company trainer;
• Private sector to appoint a coordinating officer and training supervision officer to oversee the dual vocational education of the private sector;
• Private sector to inform the students, parents and community of their involvement in the dual vocational education;
• Private sector to provide appropriate reimbursement for students.

The following table provides the number of TVET institutions and students in the dual vocational education. It should be noted here that TVET institutions can both offer formal and dual vocational education.

Student enrolment in dual vocational education as of 2020 ^[42] 

Human Capital Excellence Centre

In 2020, the Ministry of Education released a new strategic policy focus for the entire education system in Thailand, specifically for educational institutions: The Human Capital Excellence Centre (HCEC). The HCEC is aimed at ensuring the quality of human capital produced from the education system through the enhancement of all educational institutions. For TVET, this policy is also promoted through the OVEC, and in 2021 OVEC announced the requirements for moving towards HCEC for all TVET institutions under its jurisdiction. Each TVET institution is encouraged to specialise in a certain topic and field, whilst being allowed to offer other field courses as well. The ideal setting is that each TVET institution should select its specialised topics based on the industry available in the local area. The OVEC has also established guidelines for TVET institutions wanting who want to work through the steps towards becoming an HCEC, a path that also comes with incentives in funding, materials and recognition. The following are the different categorises and steps towards HCEC:

Conditions for each level towards HCEC level ^[43] 

In its outlook for Thailand’s TVET system, the government envisions advancing Thailand towards a developed nation with sustainable economic expansion. The enhancement of the TVET system in Thailand is a crucial factor in the government’s vision. The following are the current trends set forth in accordance with the government’s vision for Thailand, for which TVET is a contributing component to the achievements of these trends.

10 S-curve

In 2015, the Cabinet of Ministers approved the Ministry of Industry’s proposal of 10 targeted industries (10 S-Curve) that would be the “New Engine of Growth” for Thailand. The proposal is a policy response to the current economic difficulties Thailand has been facing. Between 2006 and 2015 Thailand’s average GDP annual growth was estimated to be 2% per year, which is more than 100% less than the average GDP annual growth rate Thailand experienced between 2000 and 2006^[44].

The 10 S-Curve industries are the Ministry of Industry’s strategic policy that aims to leapfrog Thailand from the current Middle-Income Trap towards a developed nation with a GDP per capita of more than $ 12,746 and annual GDP growth of 6%. The 10 S-Curve industries are designed to exploit the future technologies to increase productivity whilst stimulating Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) ^[45]. The following are the 10 S-Curve industries promoted by Thailand. The list is divided into two categories, the first five making up the First S-Curve followed by the New S-Curve^[46].

10 S-Curve Industries

The enhancement of infrastructure and transportation are crucial to developing the 10 S-Curve industries in Thailand, but there is also one vital component that cannot be dismissed: the human factor contributing to these 10 S-Curve industries. To increase the full potential of these 10 S-Curve industries, the current and future workforce must have the relevant skills and knowledge required by these advanced industries. As such, the role of TVET in equipping the future workforce with the relevant skills and knowledge has become a necessity for the success of the 10 S-Curve industries in advancing Thailand beyond the current Middle-Income trap it is in.

The following tables give the comparative supply and demand of workers in the 10 S-Curve industries.

Potential TVET graduates in the S-Curve industries ^[47]

Demand for TVET graduates in the S-Curve industries ^[48]

Eastern Economic Corridor

In 2016, the Cabinet of Ministers endorsed the principles of the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC) project and assigned the Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs, Somkid Jatusripitak to cooperate with the Minister of Transportation and the Royal Thai Navy in formulating a budgetary report concerning the finances of the EEC in 2017-2018 ^[49]. Subsequently, the Deputy Prime Minister assigned the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board to be the main focal point in collecting and producing the Eastern Economic Corridor Development Plan (2560-2564) (2017-2021). The first five years of the EEC’s operation (2017-2021) are estimated to bring in approximately $ 49.9 billion worth of investments from the public sector, the private sector and investors ^[50].

The EEC’s main objectives are to develop the competitive ability of Thailand, promote economic expansion and increase the standard of living for Thais. The EEC is primarily focused on developing the areas of Chonburi, Chachoengsao and Rayong, but also includes areas of Laem Chabang, Pattaya and Sattahip.

The Scope of the EEC

Digital Transformation

With recent technological advancements and the projected trend towards digitalisation and the digital era, it is predicted that all walks of life will be impacted and altered by the disruption caused by this new phenomenon. Thailand is no exception and with this at the top of the minds of policy makers in the country, Thailand passed the Blueprint on digitalisation development for economy and society called “Digital Thailand”. As stated in earlier chapters, the 20-year National Strategy 20 and the NESD Blueprint form the main national framework that governs government ministries and agencies on their planning. The Blueprint on digitalisation development for economy and society aspires to contribute and facilitate the realisation of the objectives within the National Strategy and the 11th National Economic and Social Development (NESD) Blueprint.

At this point, the pace of technological advancement exceeds that of policymakers’ ability to respond to the newly developed technologies. For this reason, the Blueprint on digitalisation development for economy and society established the following vision to prepare Thailand for the digital era. The Blueprint follows four dimensions of development (Economic, Societal, Human Capital and Public dimension).

The four phases of digital transformation in Thailand

The Blueprint details the following strategy to achieve the above vision and to help facilitate the realisation of the 20-year National Strategy and the NESD Plan.

Tax Depreciation

Few government incentives cater to promote the engagement of business sectors in technical. One highlight is illustrated in hiring and training members of the vulnerable groups, in which private corporations are entitled to an additional deduction from their gross income and an additional deduction from their net income if they modify their facilities to accommodate persons with disabilites. In this context, tax benefits are also being given to private corporations.
More information can be found here.

National TVET policy is implemented through the TESDA. In its formulation and implementation of the National Strategy for TVET in the Philippines, TESDA adheres to the Quality-Assured Philippine TESD System Framework which has Industry Consultation as key component. It is based on the three pillars of the TVET Qualification and Certification; Unified TVET Program Registration and Accreditation System (UTPRAS); and the Philippine TVET Quality Awards. Within the framework of the Philippine Qualifications Framework are five levels of qualifying and certifying the Filipino workers under the Technical Education and Skills Development sector, namely: NC-I, NC-II, NC-III, NC-IV and Diploma.  The TVET System under TESDA is competency-based, assessment driven and occupation-focused. It starts with the industry definition of competency standards and ends with the industry utilizing TVET system outputs that are able to demonstrate the competence desired in the workplace.

Adherence to the Quality Assured Philippine TESD Framework directs the agency towards the implementation of quality TVET programs. This led the development of TVET Qualifications that are industry-driven, which provide TVET graduates more employment opportunities. It also ensures that the formulated TVET policies are responsive to the current issues and challenges; and guarantee the implementation of quality TVET programs. 

Stakeholders include sectors in government, employer/industry, labor, education and training sector. These sectors are involved in policy setting, program development, implementation and even monitoring of TVET programs.

In line with the Philippine Development Plan, targets are focused on improving the quality of labor supply, specifically increasing income-earning ability, reducing youth unemployment, elevating labor participation rate of women, and improving underemployment. Strategies center on employment facilitation, skills enhancement, school-to-work transition and other labor policies enhancing income-earning abilities. Indicators include:

1. Increased participation rate in TVET of youths and adults by sex, age group, type of clients, delivery mode;
2. Increased proportion of certified TVET graduates by industry/sector;
3. Increased proportion of certified TVET graduates by sex;
4. Increased certificate rate of TVET graduates;
5. Increased proportion of poor, indigenous people and PWD beneficiaries of student financial assistance programs;
6. Increased percentage of TVET graduates with ICT skills, by type of skill;
7. Increased percentage of migrated TVET registered programs by sector/industry;
8. Increased percentage of registered programs in higher level qualifications; and
9. Increased percentage of institutions recognized under APACC.

Numerous TVET reforms and policies are in place; the key ones are:

1. BP 232 – Education Act (1982)²

The Education Act is the framework for the establishment of an integrated system of education. The Act specifies the aims of the educational system as follows: (1) Provide general education that assists individuals in the unique ecology of their own society; (2) Train the economy’s manpower in the middle-level skills required for the economy’s development; (3) Develop professions that will produce capable Philippines 5 people who can take a lead in the advancement of knowledge and improve the quality of human life, and; (4) Respond effectively to the changing needs and conditions of the economy through educational planning and the evaluation system.

2. The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines (1987)³

The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines mandates the right of a citizen to receive compulsory primary education and also stipulates free provision of education. Article XIV, Section 2 (2) spells out the free provision of primary and secondary education. It states: “The State shall establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and high school levels. Without limiting the natural right of parents to rear their children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age.”

3. RA 6655 – Public Secondary Education Act (1988)⁴

This Act prescribes that attendance at public junior high schools in the Philippines should be free.  Schools may, however, seek to collect voluntary contributions from students and their parents.

4. RA 7722 – The Higher Education Act (1994)⁵

Attached administratively to the Office of the President of the Philippines, the creation of Commission of Higher Education (CHED) was part of a broad agenda of reforms on the economy’s education system outlined by the Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) in 1992. Part of this reform was the trifocalization of the education sector.

5. RA 7796 – The TESDA Act of 1994⁶

This law created the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). TESDA is mandated to provide relevant, accessible, high quality and efficient technical vocational education and training opportunities for the Filipinos to meet the skills requirements for economic and social development.

6. RA 8292 – The Higher Education Modernization Act (1997)⁷

The law provides for the uniform composition and powers of the Governing Boards of State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) nationwide, as well as the manner of appointment and term of office of the president of chartered state higher education institutions. Furthermore, RA 8292 laid down the powers and duties of the SUC Governing Board, the highest policy making body in the institution.

7. RA 10533 – The Enhanced Basic Education Act (2013)⁸

This law is popularly known in the Philippines as the K to 12 Program. The Program covers kindergarten and twelve years of basic education – six years of primary schooling, four years of junior high school and two years of senior high school. By adding two years to the current educational system, K to 12 Program aims to provide mastery of skills for lifelong learners and prepare them for career opportunities. The program also contextualizes lessons and learning materials to students, as concepts will be explained in the context of the local culture and with the use of the mother tongue in the locality. The enhanced basic education curriculum also prepares graduates of the K to 12 Program to acquire middle-level skills that will allow them more opportunities even in the global market.

8. RA 10647 – The Ladderized Education Act (2014)⁹

The law institutionalizes a Ladderized Education Program (LEP) which would formalize a system of accreditation and interface between and among the economy’s technical vocational institutions and higher educational institutions. The law allows TVET graduates to proceed to college to pursue a degree without having to take the course program all over. Units shall be credited from a technical or vocational course to a college degree program.

9. RA 10650 – The Open Distance Learning Act (2014)¹⁰

The law seeks to expand and further democratize access to quality tertiary education through the promotion and application of open learning as a philosophy of access to educational services. The new law also intends to implement distance education as an appropriate, efficient and effective system of delivering quality higher and technical educational services in the economy.

10. RA 10687 – The Unified Student Financial Assistance System for Tertiary Education (UniFAST) Act (2015)¹¹

The law is designed to unify all modalities of publicly-funded Student Financial Assistance Programs (StuFAPs)—Scholarships, Grants-in-Aid and Student Loans—for Tertiary Education. The UniFAST Act rationalizes the allocation, utilization and client-targeting of government resources and improves access to quality higher and technical education for the beneficiaries. It shall also serve as the ultimate domestic human resource development mechanism and strategy that will direct beneficiaries to priority courses needed for economic growth and development.

11. RA 10771 – Philippine Green Jobs Act (2016)¹²

The law promotes the creation of “green jobs”, or employment that contributes to preserving or restoring the quality of the environment, be it in the agriculture, industry or services sector. The law also mandates the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) to coordinate with other government agencies in formulating a National Green Jobs Human Resource Development Plan on the development, enhancement and utilization of the labor force, both in the private and public sectors.

12. RA 10931 – The Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act (2016)¹³

The law provides for free tuition and other school fees in state universities and colleges, local universities and colleges and state-run technical-vocational institutions. It also establishes the Tertiary Education Subsidy and Student Loan Program, and strengthens the Unified Student Financial Assistance System for tertiary education.

13. RA 10968 – The Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF) Act (2017)¹⁴

The law establishes the PQF which shall describe the levels of educational qualifications and sets the standards for qualification outcomes. The PQF is a quality assured national system for the development, recognition and award of qualifications based on standards of knowledge, skills and values acquired in different ways and methods by learners and workers of the country.

14. RA 10970 – National Tech-Voc Day Act (2018)¹⁵

The law declares the twenty-fifth day of August of every year as the National Tech-Voc Day.

Furthermore, the Central Office provides the policy directions and Implementing Guidelines to serve as guides in the delivery of TVET programs and services at the regional and provincial levels. Furthermore, TESDA has established and applies a Quality Management System for its Program Registration, Assessment and Certification, and Development of Training Regulations (TRs) and Competency Assessment Tools (CATs).¹⁶

Several programs are in place to target specific groups, including: the poor and the marginalized, PWDs, IPs, women (esp. victims of abuse), returning OFWs, farmers/fisherfolk, the unemployed, underemployed, citizens in conflict-afflicted areas, inmates.¹⁷

TESDA Board Members

The TESDA Board, the highest policy making body of TESDA, includes 14 representatives from the private sector, which includes the labor sector, employer sector, business and investor sector, and education and training sector.

Development of Training Regulations

Industry experts are consulted and are involved in the development of training regulations, which includes the competency standards, training standards, and assessment and certification arrangements.

The following industries have large employment bases, are growing very rapidly and will create the most number of jobs in the next 5 years:¹

1. Tourism/Hotels/Restaurants
2. Construction
3. IT-BPO (IT-BPM)
4. Transport, Communication and Storage

The following industries have large employment bases but has shown negative or minimal growth rate in the past. However, since they are important to the economy in terms of value-added and in terms of employment, the government wants to revitalize and strengthen them. These are:

1. Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (including agro-processing)
2. Manufacturing (led by Food Manufacturing)
3. Electronics

The Health, Wellness and Other Social Services industry have high growth rates and good economic multiplier effects.

The ‘Technical and Vocational Education and Training Plan 2011-2030’ (TVET Plan)⁶ lays out the TVET strategy of Timor-Leste. The TVET Plan takes into consideration the following key policy documents:

• Timor-Leste Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030 (SDP)⁷
• National Employment Strategy 2017-2030 (NES)⁴
• National Education Strategic Plan 2011-2030 (NESP)¹²

“A training system that addresses the mid-level skill formation requirements of the formal economy is especially central to the overall human resource development strategy” of Timor-Leste.^13(p1)

The policies setout in the SDP⁷ cover three key areas: social capital, infrastructure development and economic development. ‘Education and Training’ is recognised as a means to develop human resources or build social capital (fig. 3) and strategically precedes the other two areas.

In order to build this social capital via ‘Education and Training’, Timor-Leste requires training infrastructure, relevant curriculum, teaching and learning resources, qualified TVET personnel etc.

The SDP proposes the following strategies and actions^6(p27) to achieve this; medium term TVET objectives in particular are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1: Key TVET Objectives of SDP

The ‘Technical and Vocational Education and Training Plan 2011-2030’ (TVET Plan)⁶ is based on the Sector-wide Approach (SWAp).^6(p17) Its implementation is a collaborative effort, between the Government of Timor-Leste (GOTL), community, industry and development partners. It prioritises^14(p3):

• Development of national training standards for major occupations based on industry requirements;
• Creation of a national training package that offers vocational training opportunities for up to 50% of people aged 16-18;
• Investment in training facilities across the country;
• Creation of a national council for skills, employment, and productivity by bringing together industry partners, governments, and other stakeholders;
• Development of funding mechanisms for vocational providers;
• Promotion of specific training programs based on labor market demands, and
• Establishment of close partnerships with employers to expand workplace training programs

The TVET Plan offers over 60 recommendations for seven essential elements. Some of the key ones are presented in Table 2.^6(p70)

Table 2: Key recommendations of TVET Plan

In order to meet the short-term skills needs, the TVET Plan proposes, a) capacity building of the current labour force to fill immediate gaps by establishing ‘Specialist Training Centres’, and b) establishing Polytechnics in the mid to long term to train specialist skills at certificate levels five and above^6(p109) (fig. 4).

As mentioned, the TVET Plan also takes into consideration the following key policy documents:

National Employment Strategy 2017-2030 (NES)⁴

The NES is a part of the broader strategy for human resource development and affects the policies and strategies for education, health and nutrition. TVET is a strategic area in the NES, as its ultimate goal – ‘creation of quality jobs and decent work’, directly depends on the work-readiness of students joining the workforce.

One of the pillars of the NES is ‘improve labour market supply’.⁶³ The overall strategy to achieve this is through:

• continued implementation of the TVET Plan;
• stronger links between the Ministry of Education and SEPFOPE; and
• continued strengthening of training centres and higher education, improving the social protection system and inclusiveness of vulnerable groups, and promoting gender equality.

Some of the key strategies and actions relevant to training are^6(p31):

• Encourage entrepreneurship and business skills to enable the private sector to grow and employ more people;
• Maximise the impact of public spending by imposing conditions on public contracts that stipulate quotas for Timorese workers and accredited training;
• Up-skilling of existing agribusiness workers to increase productivity;
• Reduce the mismatch between training supply and training demand, including undertaking skills gap analysis and especially of the skills required to implement the SDP;
• Use the Employment and Vocation Training Fund (FEFOP) to provide training for vulnerable groups of workers (young people, unemployed, women, single mothers and disabled);
• Involve business in all aspects of training, from planning though to evaluation –including involvement in on-the-job training;
• The effective use of all human capital underpinned by gender equity;
• Enhancing the capacity of SEPFOPE to undertake ongoing labour force surveys and labour market analysis;
• Enhancing the function of Centers for Employment and Professional Guidance (CEOPs) to enable strategic and professional counselling and information sharing service; and
• Developing the nation’s labour framework to support and/or implement: an ongoing tri-partite dialogue; dispute resolution and arbitration; worker’s rights; international conventions; labour inspectors; and occupational safety and health standards.

National Education Strategic Plan 2011-2030 (NESP)¹²

The NESP prioritises a) universal completion of basic education by 2030, b) elimination of illiteracy by 2015, and c) gender parity by 2015.

One of its goals is to have 60% of secondary school age population enrol in secondary technical schools.^6(p30) It proposes the following action plan:

• creating secondary technical schools that are ‘centres of technical excellence’ in a number of regions with courses in economics, agriculture, engineering, tourism and hospitality;
• developing new curriculum for secondary technical schools based on market needs in agriculture, engineering, business management and tourism;
• increasing teacher training through the National Education Training Institute;
• adoption of the National Qualifications Framework for higher education;
• developing ‘formal links with industry and the marketplace’ to give students at secondary technical schools direct experience of the workplace; and
• establishment of polytechnics to ‘offer technical higher education that is specific to Timor-Leste’s development needs’.

The Program of the Fifth Constitutional Government (2012–2017 Legislature) states that “Timor-Leste must address skills shortage and provide everyone - young, unemployed, women and people in the districts - with the skills to secure a job and contribute to our nation-building.”^8(p16)

A number of laws and decrees⁹ have been put forward and implemented for the development of a demand-led skilled workforce¹⁰ steered by technical and vocational skills training. In general, these align with the national educational and employment goals and lay the foundation for formulation of strategies to -

1. create necessary structures, agencies and frameworks to facilitate the impartingof skills and development of a future-ready workforce;
2. achieve synergy in strategy implementation such that various TVET line ministries and agencies work in tandem;
3. link industry needs with educational systems to develop curricula that are accredited, recognised and imparted by a pool of qualified TVET personnel; and
4. develop continual funding sources and measure impact for accountability and future decisions.

 Some important laws and decrees are^{10(p36-37),58,59}:

• Decree Law of the Government No. 21/2012 - creates Centro Nacional de Formacao Profissional Becora (CNFP Becora)
• Decree Law of the Government No. 17/2012 - recognises the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Timor-Leste (CCI)
• Decree Law of the Government No. 36/2011 - createsthe Timor-Leste National Qualifications Framework (TLNQF)
• Decree Law of the Government No. 12/2011 - regulates the Human Capital Development Fund (FDCH)
• Decree-Law of the Government No. 22/2010 -defines Organic Law of the Ministry of Education⁵⁸
• Decree Law of the Government No. 21/2010 - creates the National Agency for Academic Assessment and Accreditation (ANAAA)
• Decree-Law of the Government No. 8/2010 - approves Curricula, Implementation Scheme and Certification Model, Organization and Evaluation of Technical Secondary Schools Law on Vocational Training
• Decree-Law of the Government No. 36/2009 - defines Legal Status of Access to Higher Education⁹
• Decree-Law of the Government No. 4/2009 - creates the National Center for Employment and Vocational Training (CNEFP Tibar)
• Decree-Law of the Government No. 29/2008 - establishes the Employment and Vocational Training Fund (FEFOP)⁹
• Law of the Parliament No. 14/2008 - Education Foundation Law
• Law of the Parliament No. 14/2008 - Education System Framework⁹
• Decree-Law of the Government No. 8/2008 - creates the National Labor Force Development Institute (INDMO)
• Article 10 under the Decree-Law of the Government No. 8/2008 - mentions establishment of Special Sub-Commissions or Industry Sub-Commissions by the INDMO⁵⁸
• Decree-Law of the Government No. 3/2008 – creates and defines Organic Structure of the Secretary of State for Professional Training and Employment (SEPFOPE)⁹
• Ministerial Diploma No. 62/2016 -Functions of the National Directorate for Vocational Training (DNAFOP)⁵⁹
• Section 19 (Youth) - Fundamental Rights, Duties, Liberties and Guarantees in the RDTL¹¹
• Section 59 (Education & Culture) - Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and Duties in the RDTL¹¹
• Article 100 under Law of the Parliament No. 4/2012 - mentions the establishment of ‘National Labour Council’ regulated under Timor-Leste Labour Code⁶⁰

Employment opportunities and future demand

Timor-Leste’s economy is agriculture-centric with a captive employment of 63% being generated by the agricultural sector. Private sector contributes 5% and NGO sector contributes 2% to total employment.^23(p30) Overall, non-agricultural intra-country employment opportunities remain abysmally low.

Technology-driven TVET is set to lead the way for training and for connecting job opportunities with potential candidates. Already mobile phone-enabled services are being used in Timor-Leste to connect jobseekers and employers in Arab states through online job matching platforms such as SoukTel’s Job Match Programme via an easy-to-use short message system.^1(p98)

In terms of future demand, computer skills, finance and accounting skills, management skills, teaching and ancilliary skills and job profiles like carpentry, masonry, plumbing, electrician, catering, cooking, housekeeping, medical assistant, lab assistant, technician etc. are witnessing an upward trend. In addition, jobs in agriculture’s allied sectors and health sector are likely to witness an upward swing. Rural livelihoods and food security are priority areas for the Government of Timor-Leste. Aided by better schools and road infrastructure, improved rural livelihood options can help mitigate rural to urban migration for employment and lead to a more equitable distribution of resources.¹

Promotion of TVET

The Youth Training and Employment Perception Study of 2014 suggested that TVET be promoted in all 13 districts through media such as TV and radio, newspapers, online platforms such as Facebook, career expos and Skills’ Olympics, seminars and workshops, and community platforms such as the Church and village chiefs.^37(p13) Resultantly, TVET promotion campaigns are run regularly to bring positive behavioural change.

In effect, a TVET Communications Plan 2015 was developed and the ‘Formasaun Profisional’ (Vocational Training) campaign was launched. The 2015 “Professional Formation: Train People in Order to Work” campaign successfully promoted TVET to the youth through short films, radio spots, accreditation signage, comic strips, facebook posts and banners on topics such as career planning, selection of training centres and optional courses and employment tips.^46(p5) Similarly, the TVET Communications Plan 2016 facilitated employment opportunities for Mid-Level Skills Training Project (MLSTP) graduates through newspaper articles, a brochure and video.⁴⁷

National Skills Competitions were conducted in September 2014, October 2015 and October 2016 to foster interaction and networking between TVET students and industry representatives and to encourage female workforce participation in non-traditional sectors. These competitions invited participation of 17 accredited training centres and showcased skills such as serving three course meals and installation of a kitchen sink. SEPFOPE is presently considering sponsoring participants to compete in international skills competitions.⁴⁷

Skills development at primary school

Skills development is being introduced in primary education through the introduction of a new primary school curriculum. Innovative and engaging ways to impart skills to young children are being sought; for instance, Eugenio Lemos, one of Timor-Leste’s leading singers, was consulted by the GoTL on the Art and Culture component of the curriculum.⁴⁸

Community participation in skill-building

NGOs⁴⁵ and non-profit social enterprises are coming forward to impart non-formal and informal vocational training. Creation of such community networks not only help build the local economy and retain local talent but also assist in implementing context-specific solutions for complex problems.

Social entrepreneurships

TVET-enabled social entrepreneurships among youth are gradually beginning to pick up pace. Besides being gainfully employed, young entrepreneurs are contributing to the well-being of their local communities.

Labour Market: In 2017, the labour force participation rate is 63.2%. The youth unemployment rate was 5.9% in 2016.Employment is heavily concentrated in the services sector, particularly in public administration, wholesale and retail trade and education.

Culture and Society: TVET is considered a second-best option compared to general and higher education. There is a culture of training within firms in some industries. More employers are shifting focus from academic qualifications to skills and capacities.

Promotion of TVET: TVET qualifications are being promoted more systematically. Efforts are being made to change the mindset of society about the attractiveness of TVET and moves have been made towards making TVET qualifications more relevant to the job market.¹⁰

Education and Training: The legal minimum school leaving age is 16. A total of 115,862 students were enrolled in pre-primary to tertiary education in 2015. Distribution of post-secondary (17-25 years old) students:

• 20% A level/academic streams
• 22%TVET (government and private)
• 5% polytechnic
• 52% universities

Training Fund

The Vietnamese government provides special support for SMEs regarding HRD activities. According to the resolution 39/2018/NĐ-CP issued by the government on 11 March 2018 and Circular 49/2019/TT-BTC issued by the Ministry of Finance, SMEs are entitled to the state financial support for human resource development, including:

• Support for induction training and business management: 100% coverage of induction training for start-ups, 70% coverage of business management training on elementary level, 50% coverage of business management training on advanced level
• On-the-job training for staff working in manufacturing and processing industries: one time per year, 50% of the costs of an on-site and on-the-job training programme for staff working in manufacturing and processing industries (includes costs for overseas training)
• Short vocational training programmes for SMEs’ employees: Each eligible employee can receive one-time tuition fee waiver of maximum VND 2 million per short vocational training course (remaining costs must be paid by the employee)

More information on Resolution 39/2018/NĐ-CP can be found here.

More information on Circular 49/2019/TT-BTC can be found here.

The Law on Vocational Education¹ came into effect in July 2015. Major changes in the national TVET system are regulated in this Law. To implement the Law in practice, a number of activities have been implemented, such as:

• Responsible state management agencies in TVET sector work together to develop and release new under-Law documents (e.g. decrees, circulars, decisions, etc.), which instruct and guide TVET-related entities to implement the Law; and
• National TVET policies that are still suitable with the objectives of the TVET system (e.g. the Vocational Training Development Strategy 2011-2020)⁴ continue to be implemented.

Various stakeholders are involved in the implementation of TVET. They are:

• The Ministry of Labour - Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) is responsible for managing the TVET system, as well as for the development and approval of national occupational skill standards in their responsible sectors;
• Line ministries, e.g. Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ministry of Construction, etc., which are partners of MOLISA help in managing TVET;
• Provincial Department of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs (DOLISA) is responsible for state management of TVET activities at provincial level;
• TVET institutions (vocational education and training colleges, vocational education and training secondary schools, vocational education and training centres) are responsible for delivering TVET programmes;
• TVET teacher training institutions comprise universities and colleges that deliver TVET teacher pre-service training programmes;
• Industry (professional associations and enterprises) contributes to the development of occupational standards, curricular, training, testing exercises, assessment, and tracer and enterprise surveys. Level of participation in each type of activity depends on occupations, and willingness of each company or association. While participation of industry in TVET activities is gradually growing, it is still limited, unsystematic and unsustainable.

Key legislation includes:

• The Law on Vocational Education (Law No. 74/2014/QH13, dated 27th November 2014)¹;
• Vocational Training Development Strategy period 2011-2020 (Decision No. 630/QD-TTg of the Prime Minister dated 29th May 2012)²; and
• Project on “Vocational Training for Rural Workers until 2020” (Decision No.1956/QD-TTg of the Prime Minister dated 27th November 2009).³

Some of the special provisions include:

• TVET ethnic minority students from economically deprived areas, as well as near-poor TVET students in mountainous areas are allowed to have tuition reduction from public TVET institutions (Decree No. 86/2015/ND-CP of the Government dated 2nd October 2015); and
• Students from poor and near-poor households, people with disabilities, permanent residents from socio-economically disadvantaged or ethnic or border and island areas are allowed to receive specific scholarships and other allowances (Decision No. 53/2015/QD-TTg of the Prime Minister dated 20th October 2015).

In Vietnam, participation of professional associations is much-required in some specific professions, especially for the development of occupational standards, delivery of training programmes, etc. Thus, quite a few relevant professional associations could be engaged in TVET; however, very few are involved currently. A promising example of private sector cooperation has been the collaboration between Viet Nam Water and Sewage Association and GIZ bilateral programme in Viet Nam on the pilot cooperative training programme.

According to GoinGlobal, 2015 employment trends in Vietnam showed greatest demand,¹

By Area, for:

• Sales
• Information technology
• Business development
• Accounting
• Marketing
• Engineering
• Human resources
• Manufacturing
• Quality control
• Administration/secretarial
• Medical and health

By Sector, for:

• Manufacturing
• Health care/Pharmaceuticals
• Finance  
• IT
• Supply chain

By Skills, for:

• Communication ability
• Problem-solving ability
• Ability to work in teams
• Ability to interpret
• Analytical skills
• Creative decision making
• Adaptability
• Ability to think ahead
• Organisational skills
• Ability to delegate

Key skills needed for the next five to ten years in Vietnam, as well as throughout the Asia-Pacific region, according to Oxford Economics, include:

• Digital business skills
• Agile-thinking skills
• Global-operating skills

According to MOLISA’s newsletter update on the labour market of Vietnam, vocational courses are not preferred over academic courses. In addition, graduates of academic courses (bachelor degrees) earn more than graduates of TVET institutions.¹⁷